Literature review: Enhancing Access to Clean, Affordable, and Inclusive Energy Systems

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Introduction

This literature review, prepared by the Shell Foundation, responds to the Call for Evidence on community-led energy, put forward by the UK Parliament, addressing the following question: “Can you provide examples of successful programmes or initiatives that have enhanced access to clean, affordable and inclusive energy systems?”

Across Sub-Saharan Africa and other developing regions, innovative programs, co-funded by the Shell Foundation and the UK’s Foreign and Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO), have demonstrated effective models for delivering energy solutions that are not only clean and affordable but also inclusive and gender responsive.

About the FCDO and Shell Foundation partnership

Shell Foundation has had a partnership with DFID previously, and now the FCDO, since 2011. We currently match-fund two programmes alongside the FCDO:

• TIME (TRANSFORMING INCLUSIVE ENERGY MARKETS) is supporting a just, inclusive, clean energy transition by accelerating the impact of pioneering enterprises and creating new financial and business intermediaries to support scale and replication.  It is part of the FCDO’s Transforming Energy Access (TEA) platform.  The partnership will invest a total of £144 million between 2016 and 2027, including up to £72 million from FCDO and the same amount from Shell Foundation.  As of December 2024, TIME has supported 120 funding interventions for businesses that can be scaled for substantial impact, and up to 30 September 2024 it has leveraged over £0.9 billion of capital and improved the lives of over 26 million people with improved access to clean energy.
• The CASEE (CATALYSING AGRICULTURE BY SCALING ENERGY ECOSYSTEMS) programme is an eight-year £30 million 50/50 funded partnership[1] which accelerates access to energy-enabled solutions for smallholder farmers and agricultural SMEs (small and medium sized enterprises) in sub-Saharan Africa.  To date, CASEE has partnered with, funded and/or co-created 23 enterprises, intermediaries and market enablers.  By September 2024, CASEE had directly impacted the lives of more than 680,000 people and leveraged over £200m of additional finance.

Examples of successful programmes enhancing access to clean, affordable, and inclusive energy

The initiatives reviewed here span various thematic areas:

1. Women Empowerment and Last-Mile Distribution – Programs that leverage local entrepreneurship, particularly among women, to enhance last-mile distribution of clean energy products.
2. Aggregated procurement to enhance access to Distributed Renewable Energy (DRE) solutions – Platforms that lower the cost of acquisition of DRE projects through bulk procurement mechanisms.
3. Productive Use of Energy for Agriculture and Smallholder Farmers – Interventions that integrate renewable energy into agricultural value chains, link to markets, and address water scarcity to boost agricultural productivity.
4. Cold Chain Storage – Initiatives that address post-harvest fish losses through decentralized cold chain solutions powered by solar energy.
5. Clean Cooking and Efficient Energy Use – Efforts focused on saving time, improving health outcomes, and switching away from charcoal and biomass through clean cooking technologies.
6. Efficient public transportation – Platforms that reduce traffic congestion, pollution, and commute time.
7. Locally-Owned Solar Enterprises and PAYGo Models – Initiatives that build the capacity of local enterprises to deliver off-grid solar solutions through innovative financing models.

This literature review explores case studies that exemplify success across these themes, identifying impactful models and extracting lessons for scalability and replication.

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Women’s empowerment and last-mile distribution

Dharma Life – Engaging Rural Women in the Energy Value Chain in India

Dharma Life, through its partnership with Shell Foundation and DFID, created a sustainable rural women entrepreneurship model in India. This initiative focuses on training rural women as Dharma Life Entrepreneurs (DLEs) to distribute clean energy solutions, clean cooking products, and solar lighting equipment at the last mile. Insights included:

●        Empowerment through entrepreneurship. Dharma Life trained 3,000 women entrepreneurs in the energy value chain across 8 states, including providing start-up kits which enhanced their sales performance by up to 90%.[2]

●        Behaviour change and awareness campaigns. Local campaigns led by DLEs raised awareness on clean energy and health impacts of traditional energy sources.

●        Financial inclusion and consumer financing. Dharma Life piloted consumer financing models to make clean energy products more affordable for low-income families, which increased productivity and encouraged the uptake of clean cooking solutions.[3]

●        Impact on income. Leveraging co-funding from two private sector partners to delivery behaviour change campaigns can increase women entrepreneurs’ income by up to 30%.[4]

Jaza Energy – Last-Mile Solar Access for Low-Income Households in Tanzania

Jaza Energy’s last-mile solar energy initiative focuses on bringing affordable and reliable energy to low-income households in rural Tanzania. To date, Jaza has deployed 68 solar-powered village hubs that serve as battery charging and distribution centres, enabling affordable energy access for over 51,000 people.[5] Jaza’s impact is as follows:

●        Empowering women through employment. All hubs are managed by women, known as Jaza Stars, who are provided with training, networking, and leadership opportunities.[6] Over 150 Jaza Stars have been hired and trained, contributing to economic empowerment and community respect.

●        Cost savings and impact. Households save an average of $42 per year on kerosene, representing about 20% of their annual household budget.[7]

●        Environmental impact. Jaza's model has displaced 507,299 Liters of kerosene, avoiding 1,362,926 kg of CO2 emissions annually.[8]

●        Expansion plans. Jaza plans to scale to power 60,000 households across 400 locations by 2025.[9]

Aggregated procurement to enhance access to DRE solutions

Odyssey- enhancing cost-effectiveness for DRE projects in Nigeria

Odyssey Energy Solutions is an investment and asset management platform focused on advancing DRE projects in emerging markets. The Odyssey Aggregated Procurement Pilot, executed in partnership with Shell Foundation and The Rockefeller Foundation, aimed to enhance cost-effectiveness for DRE projects in Nigeria through bulk procurement mechanisms. The pilot focused on mini-grid developers, particularly for health electrification projects, and included the procurement of $1.8 million worth of solar equipment. Results from the pilot included: 

• Cost savings. Aggregated procurement resulted in substantial cost savings—24% for photovoltaic panels and 40% for energy storage solutions—by leveraging economies of scale and streamlined logistics.[10]
• Delivery efficiency. The approach improved delivery efficiency, reducing customs clearance time from 21–28 days to 10–15 days.[11] 
• Key lessons for scale. Key lessons include the importance of robust payment mechanisms, adaptable logistics models, and advanced workflow management tools to optimize procurement. Scaling this model across geographies and diversifying equipment types could further drive cost efficiency and improve energy access in underserved regions.

Productive Use of Energy for Agriculture and Smallholder Farmers

AgroCenta – Increasing Farmers’ Incomes and Solar Access in Ghana

AgroCenta, an agricultural technology firm which provides financing, marketing and other support to help farmers improve their productivity, tested different approaches to enhance access to solar energy for small-scale farmers in Ghana, with support from Shell Foundation and FCDO’s CASEE programme. Findings among 719 surveyed farmers included:

●        Increased incomes. Farmers linked to formal markets, such as AgroCenta's platform, saw higher returns compared to traditional local markets, with average income increases of 17%[12] reported after transitioning to formalized sales channels.

●        Market access and solar adoption. The study found that increased incomes facilitated investments in solar home systems.[13]

●        Gender inclusivity. AgroCenta specifically targeted women farmers to enhance their access to farm inputs and market linkages, addressing traditional gender disparities.

S4S Technologies – Productive-Use Distributed Renewal Energy (DRE) for Rural Communities in India

S4S Technologies, an India-based enterprise and 2023 EarthShot Prize winner, provides decentralized agricultural processing technology powered by renewable energy to over 800 women entrepreneurs working in the agricultural sector across 290 rural Indian villages.[14] S4S’s products currently process 25,000 tonnes of food annually which helps to save around 68,750 tonnes of CO2eq.[15] S4S have identified four key opportunities for mainstreaming DRE solutions in the sector.

●        Access to financing. DRE solution-providers need access to financing that enables them to make products more affordable for customers. S4S provides dehydrators to farmers to extend the life of produce, reduce food wastage and increase incomes. S4S Technologies worked with a financing entity to develop a performance-based asset financing instrument, where customers pay monthly instalments that were linked to the income generated in using the dehydrators.

●        Gender inclusion. As women farmers have no land ownership and no bank accounts, they are not included in the formal banking system. S4S has developed a unique financing model where women farmers do not have to invest any initial capital cost.

●        Market linkages. DRE-solution providers need to enable market linkages for the outputs customers create. S4S Technologies has adopted a market-linkages approach: they buy the produce output that farmer groups make from S4S’s solar dehydrators.

●        Addressing the skills gap. The DRE-jobs ecosystem needs to be made more attractive to overcome the skilled worker gap, especially for rural areas. S4S Technologies creates an ecosystem for skill development by providing internship opportunities to students from technical universities and exposure visits for students pursuing technical courses. This creates a strong and skilled network of technicians and engineers in Tier 2 and Tier 3 cities.

●        Improve product training to address servicing and repair gaps. S4S is developing an impressive array of digital tools that would enable faster communication and solutions for any breakdown. With a learning management system, minor challenges can be repaired at the women farmer’s end with assistance from our technician.

S4S’s approach has highlighted the potential of productive-use DRE systems in addressing India’s trilemma of energy security, affordability, and climate impact.

SunCulture – Advancing Solar-Powered Irrigation in Africa through government partnerships

SunCulture, headquartered in Kenya, addresses the challenges faced by smallholder farmers by providing solar-powered irrigation and household energy solutions. Supported by Shell Foundation and FCDO, SunCulture has equipped over 45,000 farmers with solar irrigation systems across East, West, and Southern Africa.[16] A pioneering PAYGrow instalment plan enables farmers to pay small deposits followed by manageable monthly payments, enhancing affordability.

In 2019, SunCulture and Bboxx-EDF Togo established a pilot scheme to provide 30 productive-use assets to smallholder farmers in Togo. This pilot sought to understand Togolese smallholder farmers' needs and showcase the value of SunCulture’s proprietary productive-use solar technology to the Togolese Ministry of Agriculture as a means of increasing local food production and improving food security. The pilot and proof of concept were then used to scale up the project and increase the number of beneficiaries through a public-private partnership Memorandum of Understanding that was signed by Bboxx-EDF Togo, SunCulture, and the Government of Togo. Achievements include:

• Scale. The partnership has so far resulted in the installation of 3,581 solar irrigation systems for smallholder farmers across Togo.[17]
• Affordability. Customers receive a 50% subsidy, which is used towards the deposit of the solar water pump and monthly payments are made by customers following payment of the deposit. A customer is registered on the CIZO platform and every time a customer makes a payment to the distributor, the same amount is then disbursed by the government to the company via mobile money. This subsidy scheme has improved affordability of the products for lower-income customers.

●        The power of partnerships. Partnering with Bboxx-EDF Togo for the pilot scheme led to the successful roll-out of nearly 4,000 productive-use assets[18] to smallholder farmers in Togo. The learnings gleaned from SunCulture’s partnership with Bboxx-EDF Togo have informed the framework with which SunCulture engages new or potential partnerships.

The collaboration with Bboxx-EDF Togo demonstrated the value of cross-pollination between Shell Foundation partners to scale impact effectively. A larger impact survey is planned to track income and yield changes, with prospects for replication in other markets.

Cold Chain Solutions

Keep IT Cool – Cold Chain Technology for the Fish Value Chain in Kenya

Keep IT Cool (KIC) is a social enterprise and 2024 Earthshot Prize winner that addresses post-harvest fish losses in Kenya through decentralized cold chain solutions powered by solar energy. Refrigerated trucks and solar-powered cooler boxes maintain fish quality during transportation, allowing retailers to sell at premium prices and reduce spoilage. The company has supported over 2,000 fisherfolk and linked them to over 500 urban markets through their cold chain powered market access platform.[19]

• The potential of cold storage in the fish value chain. KIC estimates that out of the total annual offtake of 130 tonnes in the year 2021, transportation efficiency from the use of cold trucks reduced post-harvest fish losses from 27.8% to 0.6% (from a loss of 36.14 tonnes to 0.78 tonnes per year). This saving in fish physical wastage is estimated to eliminate 65.7 tonnes of CO2eq per year.[20]
• Impacts on sales and income. A study by KIC that covered 40 respondents and attempted to identify the impact that KIC is having on fish traders in Homa Bay found that sales increased for 31% of the respondents, attributed to the guaranteed off-take capacity provided by KIC. Further, 45% of the respondents in the same study reported a perceived increase in income after enlisting sale of their fish to KIC.[21]

Clean Cooking Solutions

BURN Manufacturing’s Electric Pressure Cooker (EPC) Pilots (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania)

BURN Manufacturing designs products and distributes fuel-efficient biomass, electric, hybrid, and liquid fuel cooking appliances, and has sold over 2.8 million stoves since 2013. Funded by UK Aid under the Modern Energy Cooking Services (MECS) programme, BURN Manufacturing implemented a series of pilots of Electric Pressure Cookers (EPCs) across East Africa from 2019 to 2022. A study was conducted among 224 households in Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya to understand product/market fit.[22] Findings included:

●        Cost savings. Households in Kenya save approximately $10/month on cooking fuels, with 77% reporting reduced cooking fuel costs. 92% of customers in Tanzania reported lower cooking fuel costs and 84% in Uganda agreed that cooking with electricity was cheaper than their normal fuel. A large-scale national program in Kenya would save households up to $100 per year in energy bills.[23]

●        Time efficiency. Cooking in Kenya was 43% faster after adopting the EPC, equating to 1 hour saved a day, and 86% of Ugandan respondents reported having more time available.[24]

●        Environmental impact. Charcoal use decreased by 90% in Kenyan households.[25]A scaled transition from electric cooking in Kenya could reduce greenhouse gas emissions by an estimated 1.1 million tonnes CO2eq/year and avoid 191,000 tonnes/year of unsustainable wood harvesting.[26]

●        Health impacts. In Kenya, 130 lives and more than 7,000 cases of debilitating illness could be avoided per year.[27]

Improving urban mobility and lowering emissions

Easy Matatu – Platform-Based Paratransit Reform in Uganda

Informal transportation in common across greater Kampala, Uganda, contributing to high traffic congestion and air pollution. Established in 2019, Easy Matatu is a platform connecting commuters to safe and reliable transportation in Kampala. As of February 2021, more than 8,000 users have used an Easy Matatu taxi operated by one of 50 vetted and trained Easy Matatu drivers. Easy Matatu conducted a study among 352 users and drivers to understand the impact of formalizing the minibus taxi industry through Easy Matatu’s service offering.[28] Findings included:              

●        Reliability and safety. Over 60% of commuters reported safer and more predictable journeys, and over 90% reported shorter journeys than normal minibus taxi journeys.[29]

●        Economic stability. Time saved improved income stability for drivers, who reported an average of 13% increase in their daily income.[30] For riders, transparent pricing helped commuters avoid on average 50-100% of price fluctuations during periods of high demand.[31]

●        Potential impact and the way forward. Overall, Easy Matatu trips could help commuters and drivers save an estimated 17,500 hours daily in transit. Times savings can prevent more than 28 metric tons of CO2 being released each ear, the equivalent of 40 acres of forest, and enable drivers to increase their daily revenue by up to 25%.[32]

Locally Owned Solar Enterprises and PAYGo Models

PayGo Energy – Flexible LPG Access for Low-Income Households in Kenya, DRC, and the Philippines

PayGo Energy, founded in 2015, provides hardware and software solutions enabling low-income populations to access LPG via a pay-as-you-go mode, switching away from charcoal and biomass. Operating in Kenya, DRC, and the Philippines, PayGo's system allows users to make small mobile payments for gas consumption. A study of 464 PayGo customers and 163 non-customers was undertaken to understand the impact of PayGo energy on its customers in Kenya. Insights included:

●        Increased access to LPG. 20% of PayGo customers would not have been able to access LPG without the flexible payment system.[33]

●        Cost savings and time Efficiency. 59% of users save money on cooking fuel, and 82% report saving time—equivalent to a full working day per week.[34]

●        Reduced fuel stacking. PayGo customers are 13% less likely to use multiple cooking fuels.[35]

●        Social impact. 95% of customers report pride in using PayGo, and 26% began using it because of community influence.[36]

●        Gender inclusivity. When women oversee decision-making regarding cooking fuel, households are more likely to use PayGo. Women also disproportionately benefit from the time savings related to switching to LPG.

VentureBuilder – Partnering to build Malawi’s premier PAYGo solar company

VentureBuilder, in collaboration with Shell Foundation, provides early-stage equity and Enterprise Development Services (EDS) to African-owned and -managed off-grid solar enterprises. Through targeted investments and advisory services, VentureBuilder provided support to Zuwa Energy, an off-grip solar distribution company in Malawi which was struggling to collected expected revenue from customers. Results as follows:

●        Increase in sales. VentureBuilder worked closely with Zuwa’s finance team to develop simplified financial projections, a profit and loss statement, and a balance sheet. As a result, Zuwa Energy was able to increase sales rate by 93% from 2021 to 2022.[37]

●        Reduction in core operational costs. A branch-level profitability analysis revealed the high costs of establishing and maintaining distribution hubs. Based on these results, Zuwa leveraged its partnership with Malawi Post Corporation, to use their infrastructure to act as Zuwa warehousing and distribution hubs. This shift enabled Zuwa to recalibrate its geographic expansion plan, lower customer acquisition costs by 40% and turnaround time for product delivery to customers by 50 %.[38] 

●        Consumer credit. Thanks to closer client monitoring an algorithm-based dashboard with early warning indicators, and an upfront credit assessment, Zuwa was able to achieve a collection rate of 86% (compared to the industry average of 62%) by 2022, up from 40% two years prior.[39]

This partnership yielded several lessons crucial to empower local entrepreneurs leading the clean energy sector to scale: mentoring companies to build tools and capacities to understand historical and future financing needs is critical; credit management is core to PAYGo success, and critical deployable capital is needed to enable them to support their work.

Conclusion

The case studies presented highlight the transformative impact that clean, affordable, and inclusive energy systems can have across diverse sectors, including agriculture, cold-chain storage, transportation, cooking, and off-grid solar. These initiatives are not only advancing energy access but also have the power to improve livelihoods, save time, improve health outcomes, enhance food security, and empower marginalized communities, particularly women.

1. Empowering Women for Last-Mile Distribution. Programs like Dharma Life illustrate the potential for women entrepreneurs to act as critical change agents in clean energy distribution.
2. Decentralized procurement for DRE solutions. Odyssey’s approach shows that cost-reduction and time savings for DRE projects can be significant, expanding access to energy for critical infrastructure like hospitals.
3. Productive Use of Energy in Agriculture. AgroCenta's model in Ghana and SunCulture's solar irrigation initiatives in East Africa demonstrate that integrating renewable energy into agricultural practices significantly boosts productivity, food security, and household income.
4. Cold Chain storage. Cold chain solutions, such as Keep IT Cool, integrated into value chains such the fish industry in Kenya, have the potential to significantly reduce post-harvest loss, increase income, and reduce emissions.
5. Clean cooking solutions. BURN Manufacturing’s electric cook stoves have a significant environmental impact and show a disproportionate impact on women across East Africa, namely through time savings, household expenses reductions, and health benefits.
6. Urban mobility platforms. Tech-enabled platforms such as Easy Matatu have a significant impact on both riders and drivers, resulting in time saved commuting and finding clients, all the while reducing congestion and pollution.
7. Locally Owned Solar Enterprises and PAYGo Models. VentureBuilder's collaboration with Zuwa Energy showcases how local ownership combined with innovative financing mechanisms can drive sustainable energy access and economic resilience. PAYGo models are particularly effective in addressing affordability barriers for low-income communities.

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