Written Evidence from the Muslim Council of Britain [GIS0035]

Contact: Policy and Public Affairs, email: publicaffairs@mcb.org.uk

Introduction

1. The Muslim Council of Britain (MCB), founded in 1997 is an inclusive umbrella body of mosques, charities, professional networks, grassroots organisations and more, representing a large cross-section of British Muslims in the UK.

2. We have pledged to work for the common good of society as a whole, encouraging individual Muslims and Muslim-led organisations to play a full and participatory role in public life.

3. The MCB’s vision 2050 aims to unite British Muslims for effective action, empower our communities with the tools to excel, and serve Muslims and our country so we may have a just, cohesive and successful British society.

4. This written submission to the Women and Equalities Committee’s Inquiry on Gendered Islamophobia seeks to highlight the unique and compounded experiences of Muslim women in the UK, who face not only the harmful effects of Islamophobia but also additional challenges such as gender-based and racial-based discrimination. This submission outlines key challenges in this area, examines the intersection of gender and Islamophobia and offers recommendations to address this issue in policies, public discourse and social frameworks.

(1) Why are women more likely to be the victim of Islamophobia and what common forms does it take?

1. Muslim women are disproportionately affected by Islamophobia due to the intersection of their religious identity and gender. While all Muslims face the harmful effects of Islamophobia, women, particularly those who wear visible markers of their faith, such as head coverings, niqab or jilbab (long dress), tend to be targeted the most with hate crime in the UK[1].

2. Incidents of verbal abuse like “go back to your country” also highlight a pattern of victimisation compounded by racial prejudice i.e. Muslim women of ethnic minority heritage including South Asian, Black African or Afro-Caribbean, Middle-Eastern in particular, often face intersecting layers of discrimination.

3. A recent case highlighted by BBC News[2] further underscores this issue, where a Muslim woman was physically attacked outside a supermarket in an unprovoked assault. The incident was described as deeply traumatic and reflective of the growing hostility towards visibly Muslim women in public spaces. The report noted that such attacks leave lasting psychological scars and contribute to an atmosphere of fear and intimidation for Muslim women across the country.

4. The same BBC News report also highlights that anti-Muslim hate crimes in the UK have tripled in the four months since 7 October 2023, with 2,010 Islamophobic incidents recorded, of which two-thirds of these incidents specifically targeted Muslim women. The hate crimes reported take multiple forms, including verbal abuse, threats, vandalism, and physical assaults, with social media playing a major role in spreading hate speech.

5. The demographic composition of Muslim women in the UK further highlights the urgency of addressing these issues. According to 2021 Census data[3] for England and Wales, 49% of Muslim women are under the age of 25. This means that a significant portion of those affected by gendered Islamophobia are young persons as they attempt to fully engage in education, employment, and public life. Furthermore, half of all Muslim full-time students in England and Wales are women and 94% of British-born Muslims in England & Wales feel strongly British.

6. An article by the Daily Sabah[4] in January 2025 reports that one in five Muslim women in the UK have experienced hate crimes in the past year, with the majority of perpetrators tending to be white males. This reflects the pervasive gendered Islamophobia that targets visibly Muslim women, particularly those wearing head-coverings and/or cultural attire. Baroness Shaista Gohir OBE, CEO of the Muslim Women Network, also highlighted the role of online social media spaces in encouraging hostility and violence.

7. One of the most pressing concerns for Muslim women in the UK is discrimination in employment. Studies referenced in the ENAR Forgotten Women report[5] highlight that Muslim women face significant barriers in accessing the job market, not only due to racial and gendered biases but also because of deeply ingrained stereotypes that portray them as submissive, oppressed, or incompatible with workplace culture. Research has shown that visibly Muslim women are significantly less likely to be called for interviews compared to counterparts with other backgrounds, even when they possess the same qualifications and experience. In many cases, those who do secure employment report experiencing subtle but pervasive exclusionary practices, such as being overlooked for promotions, receiving lower wages, or facing hostility in the workplace. Some women also encounter pressure to alter their religious dress or appearance to conform to workplace norms, further reinforcing the marginalisation of their identity.

8. The media plays a pivotal role in shaping public perceptions of Muslim women, and the ENAR Forgotten Women report[6] also highlights the negative impact of biased media representations. Studies have found that media coverage frequently portrays Muslim women in ways that damage their credibility and reinforce negative stereotypes. Whether depicting them as oppressed, voiceless figures in need of saving or as radicalised threats, these portrayals contribute to a climate of mistrust and hostility. The relative lack of positive and diverse representations of Muslim women in mainstream media further entrenches these stereotypes, leaving little space for authentic voices that challenge prevailing misconceptions.

(2) In what ways does gendered Islamophobia have an intersectional dimension? Are some women more likely than others to be subject to this abuse and prejudice and if so, why? 

1. Gendered Islamophobia is intrinsically intersectional, as it impacts Muslim women not only based on their religious identity but also their gender, race, ethnicity, and social class. Women who are visibly Muslim, particularly those who wear religious attire such as the head coverings, niqab or jilbab, are disproportionately targeted due to their visibility. This heightened visibility makes them more vulnerable to verbal and physical abuse, discrimination in employment or other forms of prejudice..

2. Studies have demonstrated that women of ethnic minority backgrounds face compounded discrimination due to the intersection of race, religion, and gender. For instance, visibly Muslim women of South Asian, Black African or Afro-Caribbean or Middle Eastern heritage often encounter racism in addition to Islamophobia. This multifaceted prejudice can limit their access to education, employment, and healthcare, further entrenching socio-economic inequalities.

3. Discrimination against Muslim women is primarily based on three factors: gender discrimination, racial discrimination against Black and Minority Ethnicity (BME) groups, and religious discrimination rooted in Islamophobia. These overlapping factors exacerbate the challenges faced by Muslim women, particularly those from lower socio-economic backgrounds. Classism can also further compound these issues, as those from economically disadvantaged backgrounds encounter additional barriers to social mobility, security, and access to justice. The MCB’s latest census analysis report British Muslims in Numbers[7] highlights that nearly half of the Muslim population in England & Wales (40%) lives in the 10% of the most deprived local authority districts. And in absolute terms, when comparing 2021 to 2011 figures, this is half a million more Muslims living in the 10% of the most deprived local authority districts across this 10 year period [8].

4. Furthermore, findings from the Social Mobility Commission report[9] reveal that young Muslims in the UK face enormous social mobility barriers despite achieving higher educational outcomes compared to their peers.

5. Pakistani and Bangladeshi women face particularly acute penalties in terms of employment, unemployment rates, and overqualification[10]. This illustrates the intersection of racial, religious, and socio-economic biases that significantly limit opportunities for many Muslim women. Additionally, police records show that anti-Muslim hate crimes are often both racially and religiously motivated, emphasising the complex and layered discrimination these women face.

6. According to a British Islamic Medical Association (BIMA) survey, female healthcare professionals were more likely to face Islamophobic or racist incidents following the Summer 2024 riots[11], highlighting the intersection of gender, race, and profession. Additionally, Muslim women wearing religious attire are disproportionately targeted, as noted in the Belfast study where women wearing head coverings were most frequently subjected to verbal hostility.

7. In Scotland, 83% of Muslim respondents reported experiencing Islamophobia, with 86% feeling less likely to obtain jobs or be considered for promotions. These statistics underscore the structural barriers Muslim women face when navigating the labor market, which is further compounded by racial and religious biases.

8. Women who occupy positions of authority or engage in public-facing roles are also at heightened risk of Islamophobic abuse. Their visibility challenges stereotypes about Muslim women’s roles and agency, prompting backlash from those who perceive their presence as a threat to societal norms.

(3) What impact does Islamophobia have on women and girls, their communities and wider society?  

1. Islamophobia has profound and far-reaching effects on Muslim women and girls, their communities, and wider society. Muslim women face significant barriers to participation in various aspects of life, including employment, education, civic engagement, and social mobility. The fear of harassment or violence can lead to self-censorship, social withdrawal, and exclusion from public life.

2. Discrimination against Muslim women also impacts the wider society, as it erodes trust in institutions, increases social fragmentation, and undermines efforts towards equality and inclusion. When Muslim women are excluded from employment, education, and civic participation, it limits their contributions to the economy and society as a whole. This exclusion is detrimental not only to the individuals affected but also to broader societal cohesion. The impact on young Muslim women and girls is particularly concerning. Experiences of discrimination from an early age can have long-term effects on their confidence, mental health, educational attainment, and career prospects. As highlighted by the Social Mobility Commission report[12], young Muslim women face enormous barriers to social mobility, despite their high educational achievements.

3. The ENAR Forgotten Women report[13] highlights a “‘clear Muslim Penalty’” in the labour market, where Islamophobic stereotypes about veiling and cultural practices hold Muslim women back from obtaining employment. This not only restricts access to employment opportunities but also results in broader economic disadvantages. Muslim women who are unable to secure employment are more likely to experience economic deprivation, which can deter them from seeking higher education and work experience. The fear of discrimination also results in many women feeling less confident practicing their faith in public spaces, with some choosing to abandon religious attire such as the veil for fear of harassment or exclusion.

(4) Are there any steps, including legislative, that the Government should take to help address Islamophobia? 

1. In its comprehensive 2021 report entitled Defining Islamophobia: A Contemporary Understanding of How Expressions of Muslimness are Targeted[14] the Muslim Council of Britain outlined dozens of recommendations to the Government and other decision-makers across society to tackle Islamophobia head on.

(5) What can schools, sports clubs and other community groups, trade unions, places of worship and workplaces do to help tackle Islamophobia and to support Muslim women and girls?

1. In its comprehensive 2021 report entitled Defining Islamophobia: A Contemporary Understanding of How Expressions of Muslimness are Targeted[15] the Muslim Council of Britain outlined dozens of recommendations to the Government and other decision-makers across society to tackle Islamophobia head on. A snapshot of these are included below.

2. Educating ourselves and enriching the discourse. For example, a worthy initiative to highlight is the Muslim Women’s Council’s Daughters of Eve project which published the book Headcoverings - Reflections from women of faith[16]. The headscarf and other attire worn by Muslim women have been heavily politicised over recent years, not only in the UK, but across Europe. This book by the Muslim Women’s Council highlights that whilst head coverings are perceived as belonging solely to the Islamic faith, the reality is that many of the world’s religions feature some types of head covering for women, in particular from Judaic, Christian and Muslim traditions, and the book provides a culmination of stories and conversations around this shared heritage.

3. In the workplace and career development space, primary research by Muslim Women Connect’s report Empowered Employment: Unlocking the Workplace for Muslim Women[17] highlights numerous key recommendations, including tailored mentoring programmes for young Muslim women aged 14-22 years old, alternatives to alcohol-dominated workplace networking, ‘name-blind’ application processes for large employers and more.

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4. The Social Mobility Commission[18] also identified several strategies that can be implemented to address barriers faced by young Muslims, particularly women, and to foster an environment of equality and acceptance.

5. Mentoring and Sponsorship Initiatives: Schools, community organisations, and workplaces should increase access to mentoring and sponsorship opportunities for Muslim women. Mentorship can empower young Muslim women by providing them with role models, guidance, and professional networks that can enhance their educational and career prospects. Schools and universities could actively collaborate with community organisations and employers to establish mentorship programs that cater specifically to Muslim women, particularly those from economically disadvantaged backgrounds.

6. Promoting Islamophobia Awareness Training and Cultural Competence: Workplaces, educational institutions, sports clubs, and community groups could provide cultural competence training to address misconceptions and stereotypes about Muslim women. By fostering awareness and understanding, organisations can create more welcoming and inclusive environments.

7. Supporting Social Mobility Initiatives: Community groups, educational institutions, and workplaces should support initiatives aimed at improving social mobility. This can be achieved through providing scholarships, internships, targeted career guidance programmes, and tailored support services. Creating pipelines to access higher education and meaningful employment is essential to addressing socio-economic inequalities.

8. Monitoring and Evaluation: Trade unions, schools, and employers should regularly monitor progress through data collection and reporting to ensure that interventions aimed at tackling Islamophobia are effective and responsive to the needs of Muslim women and girls. Evaluation should include feedback from Muslim women themselves to ensure that their experiences and voices are centered in the decision-making process.

April 2025