Written Evidence from Muslim Engagement and Development (MEND) [GIS0025]

1. MEND’s Contribution to the Inquiry

1.1. This submission from Muslim Engagement and Development (MEND) to the Women and Equalities Committee Inquiry into Gendered Islamophobia makes the argument that that Muslim women face unique forms of Islamophobia due to the intersection of their gender, religion, and race, leading to discrimination in education, employment, and daily life. It calls on the UK government to adopt an official definition of Islamophobia and urges action across sectors, including politics, media, and employment, to tackle Islamophobia and hold institutions accountable. Additionally, it emphasises the need for improved support systems for victims and better reporting processes to ensure Muslim women can access justice and feel safer.

1.2 Summary

MEND’s submission highlights how Muslim women experience unique forms of Islamophobia due to the intersection of their gender, religion, and ethnicity. This intersectionality leads to higher rates of discrimination, particularly for those who visibly express their faith, such as through the hijab or niqab. The submission highlights how this manifests in various sectors, including education, employment, healthcare, and social life. It outlines the prevalence and impact of Islamophobia on Muslim women and details how visible religious attire increases their likelihood of being targeted by hate crimes, including physical assault, verbal abuse, and social exclusion. Additionally, Muslim women face systemic discrimination in education and employment, with biases affecting hiring, promotions, and career progression. In healthcare, cultural insensitivity and discriminatory practices, especially in maternity services, further marginalise them. These experiences of discrimination negatively affect Muslim women’s mental health and limit their participation in public life, creating a sense of fear and alienation.

In order to tackle gendered Islamophobia, MEND calls on the UK government to adopt an official definition of Islamophobia, strengthen support systems for victims, and improve reporting mechanisms to ensure Muslim women’s safety and access to justice. MEND emphasises the need for stronger media regulations to combat harmful stereotypes of Muslim women and urges accountability for public figures promoting Islamophobia. The submission advocates for inclusive, culturally sensitive policies, such as tailored healthcare services and diversity training in workplaces and educational settings. Engaging with Muslim communities in policy development is crucial for fostering a more inclusive society where Muslim women are respected and treated with dignity.

2. Key Positions

2.1 Why are women more likely to be victims of Islamophobia

Research consistently shows that Muslim women experience Islamophobia and are targets of hate crimes at significantly higher rates than their male counterparts, often facing more violent attacks.[1] This heightened vulnerability stems from the intersection of their gender, religion, ethnicity, and cultural practices, which creates unique and compounded experiences of discrimination. Islamophobia is inherently intersectional, as it is shaped by these various layers of identity, and for Muslim women, the convergence of these factors exacerbates their exposure to violence in ways distinct from Muslim men.[2] Studies confirm that Muslim women are discriminated against not only for their gender but also because of their religious identity and ethnicity.[3]

The visibility of Muslim women, especially those who wear the hijab or niqab, significantly increases their likelihood of experiencing Islamophobic abuse. Research shows that visible Muslim women are more likely to be targeted for hate crimes, as their Muslim identity is easily identifiable, making them vulnerable to public attacks.[4] For example, Irene Zempi, in her research, spent four weeks living as a visibly Muslim woman and faced frequent verbal abuse, name-calling, threats of physical violence, and sexual harassment in public spaces.[5] This highlights the strong link between visibility and heightened exposure to Islamophobic attacks.

Furthermore, the visibility of Muslim women often makes them easy targets for discrimination, as they are subjected to oversimplified and harmful stereotypes perpetuated by the media and political rhetoric. The niqab and hijab are commonly associated with oppression, while Muslim women are depicted as both submissive victims in need of Western "liberation" and as active agents of terrorism or foreign aggression.[6] This duality fuels gendered Islamophobia, portraying Muslim women as powerless and lacking autonomy. 

These stereotypes are further perpetuated by the media and political discourse. The Centre for Media Monitoring revealed that 60% of online articles about Muslims portray them in a negative light.[7] Stock images of veiled Muslim women are frequently used to depict terrorism or conflict, reinforcing the stereotype of Muslim women as oppressed and linked to violence. Politicians also play a significant role in fuelling Islamophobic sentiments. For instance, after Boris Johnson’s comparison of women wearing the niqab to “letterboxes” and “bank robbers,” Islamophobic incidents rose by 375%.[8] Many of these attacks targeted visibly Muslim women, underlining the connection between political rhetoric and real-world violence.

2.2 Common forms of gendered Islamophobia

Islamophobic attacks on Muslim women take various forms, including both physical and verbal abuse. Reports from organisations like the Islamophobia Response Unit (IRU) show a significant rise in incidents, especially after tensions surrounding Gaza in 2023. In October 2024, the IRU recorded a 763% increase in Islamophobic incidents compared to the previous year.[9]

Many Muslim women, particularly those who wear Islamic clothing, report distressing experiences of having their hijabs or niqabs ripped off in public, facing death threats, and being targeted for verbal abuse in public.[10] For example, a veiled woman in Sunderland had her niqab forcibly removed by a man who shouted racist insults, leaving her fearful of leaving her home.[11] Such incidents reflect a broader pattern of physical and verbal attacks, with Muslim women disproportionately bearing the brunt.

In addition to these public confrontations, Muslim women are also subjected to gendered Islamophobia within institutions like education and the workplace. Studies show that Muslim women are more likely to face discrimination in recruitment compared to non-Muslim candidates with similar qualifications, often being denied opportunities due to their appearance or religious dress. In the workplace, Muslim women struggle to secure promotions and face hostility from colleagues, discouraging them from pursuing certain career paths. The Muslim Women’s Network (MWN) reports that the fear of physical violence or verbal abuse can make Muslim women reluctant to wear the hijab or niqab at work, leading to further exclusion.[12] Moreover, institutional Islamophobia is evident in policies like the Prevent strategy, which disproportionately targets Muslim communities.[13]

Discriminatory hiring practices exacerbate the marginalisation of Muslim women, pushing them further out of the job market. Studies indicate that Muslim women are 71% more likely to be unemployed than their white Christian counterparts, despite having the same qualifications.[14] Muslim women face a “triple penalty” impacting their employment prospects: being women, being from a Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) background, and being Muslim. Religion is often the most significant factor, as employers frequently hold negative stereotypes about Muslim women, especially those who wear visible religious dress, perceiving them as oppressed or submissive. These biases also affect career progression, with many Muslim women encountering stereotyping or hostility from colleagues.

In the case of Nusrat Ghani, a Conservative MP who claimed she was sacked as a minister due to her Muslim faith, her experience highlights how institutional Islamophobia extends to high-level positions. Ghani’s experience, where colleagues raised concerns about her “Muslimness,” shows how Islamophobia can permeate even the highest levels of society, making Muslim women feel excluded, even in politics.[15]

Muslim women in the UK also face discrimination and cultural insensitivity in healthcare, particularly in maternity services. A 2022 report by MWN found that one in five Muslim women rated their maternity care as poor.[16] These women experienced higher rates of induced labour, instrumental births, postpartum complications, and emergency caesareans. Many reported feeling humiliated and unheard, with some women describing their treatment as so demeaning that they “felt lucky to be alive.” Discriminatory comments like "I hope this one can speak English" and “All you people do is make babies” highlighted the racism they faced. This mistreatment was often compounded by assumptions that South Asian women exaggerated health concerns, leading to serious issues being overlooked.

A report by the NHS Race and Health Observatory also revealed institutional prejudice in the NHS, especially in maternity and mental health care.[17] Muslim women, particularly those wearing Muslim clothing, felt at risk of discrimination, with cultural practices often clashing with healthcare practices. Many reported poor communication and cultural misassumptions from healthcare professionals, as well as a lack of culturally sensitive care. This lack of empathy is reflected in poorer experiences in primary care, where Muslim women report difficulty making appointments and feeling their mental health needs were ignored.[18]

In addition to institutional discrimination, Muslim women often face racial slurs, death threats, and are stereotyped as “terrorists” or “oppressed.” These harmful stereotypes affect Muslim women’s daily lives, as evidenced by reports following the Summer 2024 far-right riots in the UK. During this period, Muslim women were subjected to verbal abuse, threats, and intimidation, sometimes in the presence of vulnerable family members.[19] These attacks occur in public spaces, educational institutions, workplaces, and online platforms, where Muslim women face frequent harassment and hate speech.

The media portrayal of Muslim women has long been dominated by harmful stereotypes, often depicting them as victims of oppression or in need of liberation. In many films and TV shows, Muslim women are shown as either oppressed by men or needing rescue by removing their religious garments, reinforcing the idea that wearing the hijab is forced rather than a personal choice.[20] This portrayal paints Muslim women as subservient and silent, contributing to the normalisation of Islamophobia. The 2018 BBC show Bodyguard depicts a Muslim women as a victim who later turns out to be a terrorist masterminds.[21] Such depictions further embed harmful stereotypes that Muslims, especially women, are either threats or outsiders who cannot integrate into society.

However, recent efforts like Ms. Marvel have worked to break away from these damaging stereotypes. Kamala Khan, a Pakistani Muslim superhero, challenges the typical narrative by showcasing a Muslim girl who is defined by her unique identity and experiences, not by oppression or terrorism. Ms. Marvel presents Islamic practices as normal, and Kamala’s choice not to wear the hijab highlights the diversity within Muslim communities. This portrayal has been celebrated by Muslim fans, who feel seen for the first time in mainstream media. [22]  However, some criticisms have arisen regarding the series’ portrayal of Kamala’s faith, as it somewhat waters down her connection to Islam compared to the comic books, where her faith is a central part of her identity.[23] In the series, certain actions that are forbidden in Islam are normalised which misrepresents Islamic values. Despite these criticisms, Ms. Marvel still represents a breakthrough in offering a more empowering depiction of Muslim women, emphasising their complexity and agency, and proving that positive, realistic stories are both needed and welcomed.

The intersectional nature of Islamophobia, combined with the visibility of Muslim women and the reinforcement of negative stereotypes, contributes to the disproportionate impact of Islamophobia on Muslim women. The combination of physical, verbal, and institutional abuse, alongside the media’s role in perpetuating harmful narratives, creates an environment where Muslim women are increasingly vulnerable to hate crimes and discrimination but face significant barriers in seeking justice or support.

2.3 The impact of Islamophobia have on women and girls, their communities and wider society  

Islamophobia in education and employment creates significant barriers for Muslim women and girls. Despite being highly qualified, Muslim women often face rejection and exclusion. Dr. Nabil Khattab’s research from the University of Bristol highlights that British Muslim women are 71% more likely to be unemployed than their white Christian counterparts, even with similar qualifications and language skills.[24] This disparity is largely due to the visible expression of their faith, such as wearing the hijab, which leads to stereotyping and discrimination. For example, a highly qualified Muslim woman reported being rejected from several positions because of her Muslim identity.[25] This bias extends beyond recruitment to career progression, where many Muslim women face barriers to promotion and professional growth.

In educational settings, Muslim women also experience significant challenges A secondary school teacher wearing the hijab was verbally abused by students, and when she reported it, she was asked to leave the school.[26] She later struggled to secure another teaching position, which she attributes to her visible Muslim identity. Such experiences are common, with many Muslim women feeling that both overt and subtle Islamophobia limit their professional and educational opportunities.

Beyond education and employment, gendered Islamophobia deeply impacts the daily lives and mental health of Muslim women. The visible expression of their faith subjects them to verbal abuse, physical assault, and even threats. For example, MWN reported that some Muslim women are called "terrorist" or have their hijabs ripped off in public.

This fear leads to altered behaviour and self-censorship. Many women, like NHS doctor Rana Yusuf, change their appearance to avoid discrimination, including removing their hijab at work for more favourable treatment.[27] Yusuf noticed a shift in how colleagues treated her after she stopped wearing the hijab, illustrating how appearance-based discrimination influences women’s choices. Other women avoid certain areas or stay home to reduce the risk of abuse, which diminishes their sense of freedom and belonging.[28]

Moreover, these experiences lead to isolation and a diminished sense of belonging. Many Muslim women feel they must choose between their religious identity and being accepted in mainstream society, leading to a retreat from public life and increasing alienation. The fear of hate crimes restricts Muslims' rights and freedoms, making them hesitant to participate in social, educational, or professional settings.[29]

A significant barrier to addressing Islamophobia is the underreporting of incidents due to a lack of trust in authorities. Research indicates that Muslim women are particularly reluctant to file complaints. According to MWN, 80% of Muslims who experience hate incidents do not report them, fearing their complaints will be ignored.[30] Furthermore, 67% of Muslims express concerns about their safety, with 31% doubting the police’s ability to address their complaints. This mistrust is exacerbated by negative experiences with the criminal justice system, where Islamophobic abuse cases are often inadequately investigated, and perpetrators frequently go unpunished.[31] This marginalises Muslim women and erodes social cohesion, weakening trust within communities.

Islamophobia has surged since 7 October 2023. The Runnymede Trust reported a 335% increase in Islamophobic incidents leading up to February 2024, with Muslim women bearing the brunt.[32] The far-right riots in 2024 intensified this situation, leaving many Muslim women fearful of violence and intimidation.[33] Prior to the riots, only 17% of Muslims reported feeling worried about their safety. However, after the riots, that figure surged to 87%, with many women altering their behaviour, avoiding public transport or wearing scarves to minimise the risk of abuse.[34] These women feared verbal abuse and physical assault, with their concerns often dismissed by authorities. The increase in Islamophobic incidents has not only led to more violence but has also restricted Muslim women’s ability to freely participate in society.

Gendered Islamophobia has far-reaching consequences for Muslim women and their communities. It leads to structural discrimination in education and employment, changes to daily life and routines, and significant psychological distress. The underreporting of incidents due to mistrust of the police further exacerbates these issues. The recent rise in Islamophobia has contributed to an atmosphere of fear, making it increasingly difficult for Muslim women to fully participate in society. This harms the women affected and weakens community cohesion, hindering social progress and integration in broader society.

2.4 Steps the Government should take to help address Islamophobia 

To effectively tackle Islamophobia, a key first step is adopting an official definition. The All-Party Parliamentary Group (APPG) on British Muslims has proposed a definition that should be adopted by the government, institutions, police, and other authorities.[35] This would provide clarity and consistency in addressing Islamophobia, enabling accurate reporting and tracking of hate crimes. Formalising this definition would also signal the government's acknowledgment of the issue and ensure consistent responses across sectors.

In addition to defining Islamophobia, the government must hold politicians and public figures accountable for promoting hatred against Muslims. Research by MWN found that 67% of respondents believed the Conservative government exacerbated Islamophobia, while only 27% felt confident that the Labour government could adequately address it.[36] Political parties must confront Islamophobia within their ranks, treating it with the same seriousness as other forms of discrimination. The Forde report highlighted that Islamophobia and anti-Black racism in the Labour Party were not treated with the same gravity as antisemitism, highlighting the need for internal reforms.[37]

The media plays a crucial role in shaping public attitudes, often perpetuating harmful stereotypes about Muslims. The government should introduce stronger regulations to prevent media outlets from reinforcing these negative portrayals. For example, depicting Muslims as “extremists” or “terrorists” fuels fear and suspicion, disproportionately impacting Muslim women in visible religious attire. By ensuring fair and balanced reporting, the government could reduce stigma and promote a more inclusive society.

To improve media regulation, the government must revive the second part of the Leveson Inquiry and implement its recommendations, which would establish a media regulatory framework independent of the industry itself. Currently, the Independent Press Standards Organisation (IPSO), which most national newspapers are a part of, is widely criticised for its ineffectiveness in holding media outlets accountable for discrimination and disinformation.[38] A more robust, independent regulatory model would ensure that harmful content, including Islamophobic hate speech and misinformation, is effectively addressed. Additionally, Ofcom could be reformed to take a more proactive stance in combating harmful content. Ofcom should enforce stricter penalties for media outlets, like GB News, that consistently breach broadcasting rules.

By introducing a truly independent and diverse regulatory system, we can create a framework that holds media outlets accountable for discriminatory portrayals that feed gendered Islamophobia and ensures accurate, respectful representation of minority communities. With a more diverse regulatory body, we can better address the intersection of gender and Islamophobia in the media, reducing harmful biases and fostering a more inclusive media environment.

Underreporting of Islamophobic incidents remains a challenge due to a lack of trust in authorities. MWN reports that many Muslim women hesitate to report hate crimes, fearing their complaints will be dismissed.[39] Irene Zempi’s research highlights the psychological and emotional barriers that Muslim women face when engaging with the criminal justice system.[40] Many describe reporting as intimidating and demoralising, leading to silence and powerlessness.

To address this, the government must improve support systems available for Muslim women reporting abuse. Speeding up responses, providing clearer information about investigations, and keeping victims informed are crucial steps. Additionally, police and authorities need specialised training to understand the unique challenges Muslim women face due to their gender, ethnicity, and faith. Tailored services for veiled Muslim women are crucial, as their experiences differ significantly from those of Muslim men.

Comprehensive data collection is essential to understanding the true extent of Islamophobia. Police forces should standardise the recording of Islamophobic incidents to provide a clearer picture of the issue. The lack of consistency in tracking these crimes makes it difficult to allocate resources effectively.

To tackle Islamophobia in employment, measures like name-blind job applications can help prevent bias based on ethnicity or religion. Employers should also offer diversity training to combat stereotypes and promote cultural understanding. Clear anti-discrimination policies and safe reporting channels are essential, alongside encouraging Muslim women’s representation in leadership and mentorship programs. These steps help create a more inclusive workplace for all.

The government should accept the recommendations of the MWN report on Muslim women’s maternity experiences to tackle gendered Islamophobia in healthcare.[41] This includes implementing cultural sensitivity training for healthcare professionals, improving data collection on ethnic and religious disparities, and ensuring that maternity services are tailored to meet the needs of ethnically diverse populations. By addressing these issues the government can help create a healthcare environment where Muslim women are treated with dignity, respect, and fairness.

Finally, the government must engage with Muslim communities and organisations to develop culturally sensitive policies that address their needs. Organisations like MEND, which work with schools, workplaces, and other institutions, can play a pivotal role in educating people about Islamophobia and reducing prejudice. Raising awareness and fostering understanding will encourage a more inclusive and tolerant society.

Addressing Islamophobia in the UK requires a multifaceted approach, including legislative reform, better media regulation, improved training for authorities, and consultation with affected communities. By adopting an official definition of Islamophobia, holding public figures accountable for spreading hate, improving reporting systems, and recognising the unique experiences of Muslim women, the government can begin to create a safer, more inclusive society. Implementing these steps will not only benefit Muslim women but contribute to a more equitable and harmonious society for all.

April 2025