Written evidence submitted by Miss Sophie de Groot (University of Leeds) (VAWG0031)
I am a PhD Researcher at the University of Leeds School of Law. My research explores young people’s experiences of relationship violence from a lived experience perspective.
Summary
This evidence is based on a short research project exploring designated safeguarding leads, pastoral support workers and independent domestic violence advisors (IDVAs), broadly defined as ‘trusted adults’, perceptions of adolescent relationship abuse. Key findings suggested that misogyny, both online and at school, is a key factor driving the abuse of adolescent girls. Due to the pervasive nature of misogyny, participants outlined the following recommendations to address this:
Background
Adolescent relationship abuse has been demonstrated to be a significant issue in the United Kingdom (UK), whereby young girls overwhelmingly face the most sustained and severe impact (Giodarno et al, 2021; Barter et al, 2017). Despite this, those under the age of 16 are not included in the legal definition of domestic violence (Home Office, 2013). Current evidence suggests girls under the age of 18 are the most likely age group to be victims of abuse within their intimate relationships (Barter et al, 2009). Consequently, it is important to consider why this may be the case. This research explored through interviews with designated safeguarding leads, pastoral support workers and independent domestic violence advisors (IDVAs), broadly defined as ‘trusted adults’, how and why relationship violence occurs, as well as how prevention and support can be improved.
Method
Interviews were conducted with seven trusted adults working with young people aged 11 to 18 based in the regions of North and West Yorkshire. In terms of recruitment, forty state secondary schools from three randomly selected towns in the UK regions of North and West Yorkshire were identified via online school directories and invited to participate in the research. These were randomly selected to avoid bias in the selection of schools. Additionally, a gatekeeper from a local organisation working to prevent youth violence circulated a call for participants. The gatekeeper emailed organisations they deemed relevant to the research, aiming to reduce researcher bias. All ten identifiable relevant organisations providing support to victims of adolescent relationship abuse were contacted. Organisations where it was ambiguous if this was within remit were excluded in the interest of time. Interviews explored how trusted adults conceptualised adolescent relationship abuse, how and why they think it occurs as well as how existing prevention mechanisms and support for victims could be improved. The research was additionally advertised online within local community groups. Ethical approval was granted by University of Leeds FREC taught student block approval, reference AREA 21-162.
Findings
Misogyny and harmful ideas of masculinity came up during every interview as a central factor driving abuse in adolescent relationships. Participants described how stereotypical ideas of masculinity are rife within schools and adolescent boys are particularly influenced by this. In their experiences, they felt this is often used as a justification for controlling behaviour within relationships.
“[They believe that] the male’s got to be the protector… masculine and strong, and a woman has to sacrifice herself in some way for a man and she won't be complete without him.” (Participant 3)
The data also suggested that where teenage boys adopted the ‘protector’ role, this often leads to the social positioning of girls as inferior and passive. Those interviewed felt that the failure to address misogyny in schools leads to assumptions among adolescent boys that girls, particularly romantic partners, objectifies adolescent girls and sends a message that they should therefore be submissive. This contributes to a spectrum of harmful relationship behaviour that, whilst rarely physically violent, leads to a lack of understanding regarding the importance of consent. Other research has additionally highlighted the confusion of adolescent males regarding seeking consent in an appropriate manner (Sheng et al, 2023).
“It’s rarely physically aggressive or verbally abusive, but it's just been ‘pester, pester, pester’ to the stage where it's probably like, oh, all right, I'll do that for you.” (Participant 5)
Similarly, participants recalled a minimisation of adolescent girls’ experiences of misogyny by both staff and peers, with phrases such as ‘boys will be boys’ excusing and legitimising sexual coercion. Earlier research has highlighted alarming rates of sexual harassment in UK secondary school and the current study suggested that, in the context of Yorkshire, this is still the case (Office for Standards in Education, Children's Services and Skills [Ofsted], 2021). Staff additionally suggested there was a lack of clear guidance in how to tackle misogyny, and that the current Relationship, Sex and Health Education (RSHE) curriculum does not appropriately reflect the reality of young people’s relationships. This has been supported by similar research in this area demonstrating a lack of staff confidence in tackling harmful relationship behaviour (Sheng et al, 2024). Those interviewed additionally stated a minimisation of abuse, where behaviour was labelled as ‘toxic’ or simply part and parcel of a teenage relationship, rather than being recognised as abusive. Participants suggested this acts as a significant barrier for victims to get support.
“Language is often centred around ‘toxic’ or ‘unhealthy’ [relationships] when actually it's considered abusive… It says a lot about the kind of language that we use and what is more palatable.” (Participant 3)
This highlights the need for both young people and staff to be adequately supported to recognise and challenge both misogyny and abuse when it takes place, instead of minimising sexual harassment and abuse using phrases such as ‘boys will be boys’.
Another key finding during interviews was the role technology plays in enacting coercive and controlling behaviour. Earlier research indicates that technology-facilitated abuse, which can be defined as the use of technology to instigate control or coercive behaviour, is becoming the most common form of intimate partner among adolescents, and that girls are more likely to be victims (Stonard et al, 2021). This was particularly referenced in relation to the expectation to check a partners social media accounts to monitor their behaviour and location. These expectations were repeatedly cited as the norm in adolescent relationships, and a frequent source of conflict. This was often linked back to the idea that adolescent girls are viewed as inferior by their male partners and social media represented an additional territory to uphold control over a partner. Girls were often subjected to verbal abuse from their partners where they were not seen to behave ‘appropriately’ in line with what their partner expected. Similarly, some interviewees discussed instances where young girls were verbally attacked by partners for posting something online that they did not agree with. This control also extended to the tracking of girls’ locations using social media. Participants described situations where, when girls refused to share their locations with their partners, this led to accusations of promiscuity and further misogynistic language. This demonstrates how the objectification of girls can lead to abuse within adolescent relationships.
“Social media, like the jealousy because they can track them wherever they’re going. I know some pupils have said on Snapchat if people don't have their location on and the boyfriend can't see where they've been going, then that's led to arguments before.” (Participant 6)
In order to challenge this, it is imperative that young people are appropriately educated on the appropriate way to use technology in a relationship.
A common theme cited throughout the interviews was the influence of online misogyny, given the significant amount of time young people spend online. Recent research found that 100% of young people aged between 12 and 17 are online, with social media apps such as TikTok and Instagram being particularly popular (Office for Communications [Ofcom], 2024). Misogynistic and sexist content consumed on social media was cited as instrumental in propagating harmful relationship norms between young people. This was particularly referenced in relation to the growth of influencers such as Andrew Tate, who are popular on platforms such as TikTok and Instagram. Andrew Tate was referenced in every interview as being particularly influential in promoting narratives of toxic masculinity and heterosexuality among adolescent boys:
“I think there's quite a lot of, like, this toxic masculinity that's going around at the minute. You know, people like Andrew Tate. So, I think a lot of our boys, they don't have a positive male role model in the house and they're looking for it naturally. They're looking for a leader. They're looking for someone to look up to and sometimes they're not always picking the right person and they're hanging off their every word.” (Participant 6)
Tate’s content represents a broader section of social media known colloquially as the ‘manosphere’, which emphasises the patriarchal control of and entitlement to women as a defining feature of masculinity (Roberts et al, 2025). This aligns with recent work highlighting the link between influencers such as Andrew Tate and the normalisation of misogyny among teenage boys (Haslop et al, 2024). The nature of social media algorithms to amplify this content increases the likelihood that it will be viewed repeatedly by adolescent males (Regehr et al, 2024). Participants expressed their concerns that although the recent Online Safety Act (2023) requires technology companies to remove content promoting violence against women and girls, that this is not being implemented effectively. Taking a different approach, they suggested enabling young people to recognise and challenge misogyny online through greater education may prevent these ideas from influencing their personal relationships.
Additionally, all participants emphasised the easy availability and violent nature of pornography as normalising objectification of romantic partners. Data suggests around 79% of young people have viewed violent pornography by the age of 18 (Children’s Commissioner, 2023). Pornographic consumption, particularly of extreme content, was repeatedly linked during interviews to the normalisation of sexual coercion within relationships.
“The level of pornography that they see… they're not seeing healthy relationships when they're watching pornography… they’re expected to do things that we never would have been expected to do because of what they’re seeing on social media, and it’s become the norm” (Participant 5).
Those interviewed shared their concern that the easy accessibility of pornography was leading to adolescent males developing unhealthy and harmful ideas about appropriate sexual conduct, both in their relationships and related to sexual harassment. All participants emphasised how the formative nature of adolescent romantic relationships can make young people more susceptible to misogynistic narratives regarding consent and harmful sexual behaviour. Whilst the Online Safety Act (2023) has taken steps to address this, such as requiring pornography websites to verify the age of users, participants expressed the importance of this being properly implemented to protect girls from sexual violence and harassment. Similarly, the need for social media companies to more effectively monitor this content in the first place was consistently stated as a means to ensure the Online Safety Act protects young people from misogynistic content. This point has been underscored by several domestic violence organisations (Ending Violence Against Women Coalition, 2024).
Finally, following discussions during the interviews around the lack of relevancy of the current RSHE curriculum to young people’s relationships, participants expressed the need for content to be updated. Several of those interviewed suggested co-producing resources, particularly with young males, that tackle issues such as misogyny and sexual violence would create a greater impact in reducing adolescent relationship violence.
“I just I think if we tailored [education] to young people's needs, what they want to cover but also get them in a way to develop the material. But then also maybe something that involves training them up to be sort of, I guess like peer mentors, so they're the ones either delivering the sex education and then training up other young people. I think that just, I think it gives them more of a voice. It gives the power back to them. It feels less than, less, like we're doing to. And it's that more doing with. But also I think they're more likely to listen and respect somebody of a very similar age” (Participant 3).
Participants suggested co-producing resources aimed at tackling relationship violence would lead to greater engagement with the RSHE curriculum and also give adolescent males greater agency in recognising and calling out toxic masculinity and misogyny. This has been supported by research suggesting that when coproduced, healthy relationships interventions have more consistently positive outcomes (Porter and Standing, 2024).
Conclusion
In summary, given that adolescent relationship abuse is an issue where girls are primarily the victims, it is important to tackle the misogyny identified as a central factor leading to abuse. Misogyny and sexism are evidently having a pervasive impact on the quality of young people’s relationships. This exploratory research highlighted five recommendations to ensure young people and schools have the skills to appropriately challenge misogyny. Educating young people and staff to recognise and challenge sexism and misogyny, particularly online, is therefore vital to the long-term prevention of violence against adolescent girls.
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February 2025