Scottish Association for Marine Science ARC0021

Executive Summary

As the Arctic melts, the waters around the UK will become more stratified (layered) potentially making the seas less productive. Reduction in the circulation of the North Sea is predicted with potential negative consequences to UK fisheries and where additional changes in species distributions around the UK may lead to resource conflicts. In the long-term, a possible slowing of circulation of the North Atlantic may, counter-intuitively, have a cooling effect on the UKs climate.
The loss of sea-ice is leading to a loss of habitat for ice-algae, fish, mammals and birds whilst also unlocking ice associated contaminants. It is also opening the Arctic to increased shipping and exploration/exploitation of natural resources (and military operations) leading to increased potential of contaminants and spread of invasive, non-native species.
The UK has a high level of engagement with Arctic nations particularly in the educational sector and via the Scottish Arctic Network (ScAN), the University of the Arctic (UArctic) and their partnerships with the Scottish Government Nordic and Arctic Units.
UK Arctic research activity is highly valued by Arctic nations, evidenced by successful collaboration and shared research outputs. UK researchers have been directly funded (particularly by Norwegian Funding Councils) and benefitted from shared research cruises and access to robotic platforms.
Promoting UK science in the Arctic should be the focus of future funding calls though both new and the expansion of existing schemes such as: Multi-national Arctic Science and Innovation Networks (SIN) providing trans-national access; Bursaries and exchange programmes; ‘Arctic centric’ bi-lateral funding schemes; Support of long-term time-series monitoring and; Ensuring annual presence of the UK research ship(s) in the Arctic.
Understanding ecological changes in the Arctic requires access and collaboration with Russian territories/researchers (constituting a third of the Arctic) which have virtually ceased because of the Ukraine war and relationship with Russia. Every effort needs to be made to re-establish links as soon as is politically feasible.
The three principles behind the UK's original Arctic policy framework need to be upheld, namely "principles of respect, cooperation, and appropriate leadership".

Overview of submitting organisation

The Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS) has been delivering independent marine science since 1884. Based in Oban, 160 staff are working for healthy and sustainably managed seas and the ocean through world-class marine research, education and engagement with society. SAMS is a specialist partner of the University of the Highlands and Islands.
SAMS has been at the forefront of UK research into the Arctic marine environment for over 25 years. Whilst having a broad, interdisciplinary breadth of research, SAMS has a significant Arctic focus with 20% of our peer-reviewed publications having an Arctic component.
SAMS has a long-standing reputation for Arctic scientific excellence. In the 2017-22 UKRI funded Changing Arctic Ocean programme, SAMS led three projects (out of a total of 16) and participated on a further two. SAMS is a co-leading institute in one of the UK-Canada co-funded programme Canada-Inuit Nunangat-United Kingdom Arctic Research Programme (2021-2025) and co-leading a project in the new UKRI-Greenland call. SAMS research is regularly included in policy and international reviews, such as the NOAA Report Card [1],[2]. SAMS peer-reviewed Arctic research papers have been central to changing paradigms in Arctic ecology, physical oceanography, and climate impacts.
SAMS uses robotics (through the Scottish Marine Robotics Facility) and develops bespoke equipment for Arctic research. SAMS Enterprise have developed the Sea Ice Mass Balance Apparatus (SIMBA), providing reliable and affordable sea ice data. Over 250 units have been sold to customers worldwide and deployed in the Arctic Ocean, Arctic rivers and the Baltic Sea resulting in 50+ peer-reviewed papers, with 28 being deployed on the international MOSAiC expedition (2019-20).
Uniquely, SAMS provides dedicated undergraduate training in Arctic sciences through degree level study with the University of the Highlands and Islands (UHI) in partnership with Norway’s University Centre in Svalbard (UNIS). Since the start of the “Marine Science with Arctic Studies” degree programme in 2007, 61 students have undertaken formal Arctic training. In addition to this, SAMS has trained 11 PhD students in fields of Arctic marine science over the last decade, with all undertaking postgraduate level training or fieldwork in the Arctic during their studies.
SAMS is internationally recognised for its long-standing and impactful contribution to Arctic science. SAMS researchers are regularly invited to international meetings and groups, recently including speaking at the British Embassy in Oslo (2022) and participating in an Arctic Coastal environment and Biodiversity Observation Network (2023). SAMS researchers were central to the Science and Innovation Network (SIN) push to establish better collaborations between UK and Russian Arctic scientists (2019-2022), with SAMS staff visiting partners in Moscow and St Petersburg and hosted Russian colleagues at SAMS and other workshops in the UK. Two SAMS researchers hold adjunct professorial positions at Norwegian Arctic universities.
SAMS is central in the UK Arctic research community. SAMS staff represent UK Arctic research through sitting on the working groups of the International Arctic Science Committee (IASC), SAMS was instrumental in the creation of the Scottish Arctic Network and has recently (2016) hosted the UK Arctic Science conference. SAMS employees have also given verbal evidence to previous UK Parliament enquiries on Arctic policy [3].
SAMS works extensively to communicate our research outside of the research environment. We have a permanent Arctic station in the Ocean Explorer Centre (Oban) featuring SAMS scientists and contribute to public engagement through the production of new artistic pieces including an award-wining film based on SAMS work in the Polar Night, a newly composed piece of music based on Arctic ecological data, and an ongoing collaborative with a visual performance artist. We work with Glasgow Science centre and have a permanent “Arctic Virtual Cruise” exhibit illustrating the work done in the Changing Arctic Ocean projects.

Response to Enquiry

We base our responses around the Terms of Reference for the enquiry and on the questions posed.

The Arctic environment

What are the consequences for the UK of the observed climatic and environmental changes in the Arctic?

The UK is predominantly exposed to a maritime climate (prevailing winds from the west) where changes in the North Atlantic (freshening, stratification and warming) brought about by a melting Arctic will be felt more readily than in other parts of Europe. Examples of changes may include:

Reductions in salinity are expected to dramatically reduce North Sea inflow and circulation [4] with potential implications for fisheries and species of conservation importance.
Increased stratification will result in reduced nutrient availability in surface waters leading to changes in primary production of marine algae potentially making the UK’s waters less productive [5].
Changes in the distribution of primary zooplankton is altering the distribution of food for fish, birds and marine mammals [6]
Changes in fish abundance and distributions will change the UK’s access to fishing grounds with potential for conflict of resources [7] .
IPCC AR6 notes there is only medium confidence that the Atlantic Meridional Overturning circulation (AMOC) will not experience an abrupt collapse before 2100. If it were to occur, it would very likely cause abrupt shifts in regional weather patterns and water cycle. The probability of these low-likelihood outcomes increases with higher global warming levels. One such consequence for the UK would be a cooler climate, with less ocean heating of our maritime atmosphere.

What are the observable realities of ice decline for biodiversity, air quality, sea level changes, permafrost melt and levels of methane?

Sea ice decline is resulting in a loss of ice algae which is an important source of food for many invertebrates both in the water column and on the seabed [8],[9].
Sea ice decline is resulting in loss of habitat for above ice (mammals and birds [10]) and below ice fauna important as a nursery habitat for fish and the provision of ecosystem services [11].
Species abundance or distribution changes are becoming more apparent where typically southern species move north constrict northern species [12],[13].
With climate change alterations in the physical Arctic environment, transport, levels, and release of contaminants such as metals and persistent organic pollutants is changing and mostly increasing [14],[15],[16].
Increasing ship-traffic and warming of the Arctic is resulting in increasing observations of marine aliens (non-native species) with predicted impacts for Arctic economies and ecosystems [17].

The UK’s Arctic interests

What use do UK businesses (oil, minerals, fisheries, tourism, shipping) make of the Arctic as a whole, and how may that use develop in coming years, especially as the ice recedes?

The UK education sector has a high level of engagement with the Arctic. 12 UK higher education institutes are members of the University of the Arctic (UArctic) [18] providing considerable student transnational access.
Arctic engagement (discussion, advice, points of contact) has recently been further promoted via the Scottish Arctic Network (ScAN) via members of the UArctic and in partnership with the Scottish Government Nordic and Arctic Unit.
Arctic shipping is increasing, particularly through areas that are opening for longer throughout the year as sea ice decreases [19],[20]. In the future this will increase atmospheric and marine pollution, noise pollution effects on marine wildlife, and the introduction of non-native species [21].

What are the risks to the climate and the environment of current business trends, especially extractive industries, in the Arctic?

Exploitation of Arctic resources is known to have impacts on the Inuit communities, e.g., Baffinland mine close to Pond Inlet has seen a significant increase in Tankers and Bulk Carriers passing close to the local community. Receding glaciers and sea ice will open up new areas of land, but communities and sensitive federal politics must be understood before considering exploiting resources.
The reduction of Arctic sea ice is resulting in increased levels of shipping, which leads to an increase in risk of oil spills and contamination from increased shipping and transpolar access [22],[23].
Extractive industries including oil and gas exploration and exploitation, metal mining, and fisheries are all showing upward trends as the warming environmental conditions make access and activity in the Arctic less risky. These trends are increasing and are associated with negative socio-environmental impacts on indigenous communities as well as an increase in the risk of environmental pollution [24].

What is the UK’s military interest in the Arctic and what effect might that have on the environment?

As a scientific research organisation, our specialism is not in UK military activity. However, we note that any increased ship presence (including military) will increase the risk of contaminant release22,23. Notably, historically the UK military has supported scientific endeavour, primarily with under ice submarine surveys.

The UK’s contribution to the Arctic through scientific research

The UK’s engagement and contribution to Arctic science is long and deep (our relationship with the Arctic spans 400 years [25]), and Arctic science is intricately embedded within academic, education, consultancy, and exploration/exploitation industry sectors. We are conscious that the UK should consider that the pursuit of Arctic science does not follow the same lines as for Antarctic science. In the Arctic we are generally visitors to national territories, whereas in the Antarctic we have territorial leadership in additional to international collaboration. We should be respectful of that visitor status when visiting the Arctic, join and engage in collaborative international networks, and work in partnership towards regional and global common goals as exemplified in the National Inuit Strategy on Research [26].

What are the benefits for the UK of support for Arctic research activity?

UK Arctic research activity is highly valued by Arctic nations, evidenced by our level of successful collaboration through research papers/books, exchanges, UK researchers with adjunct positions at Norwegian Arctic institutes, student visits and training, outreach activities, and UK and internationally funded projects etc. This successful activity builds networks at both personal and institutional networks, not only with Arctic nations, but also with other international partners who have an interest in Arctic research.
A successful example of these collaborations is a sabbatical taken at SAMS by a professor from the University of the Arctic (UiT), leading to a new research area lasting over a decade and producing high-impact internationally collaborative science on Polar Night ecology [27],[28],[29]
UK/Arctic Nations collaborations create some flow of funds to the UK. Some specific examples from SAMS scientists include direct flow such as funded participation on research projects funded by the Research Council of Norway, and indirect financial benefits such as inclusion of scientists on international research cruises and access to state-of-the-art technology (e.g. Unmanned Surface Vehicles [30], Autonomous Underwater Vehicles, oceanographic moorings).
Support for students (undergraduate to PhD) and Early Career Researchers has come from funding schemes such as the Greenland bursary and the NERC Changing Arctic Ocean programmes with financial support.
UK University membership of UArctic, and integration of Arctic student courses and resources into degree programmes (e.g. SAMS BSc Marine Science with Arctic Studies, including 61 undergraduate student exchanges with UNIS since 2007). Students have widely benefitted from engagement with programmes such as Erasmus, North2North, and now Turing to access and exchange with Arctic Universities.

What more could the UK do to improve or increase its contribution to Arctic science?

We would welcome the development of a multi-national Arctic Science and Innovation Network (SIN) based on success of UK-Russia work in 2018-19.
The recent Greenland bursary [31] has enabled UK Arctic researchers to engage with those in Greenland. A dedicated Arctic bursary, allowing collaboration with any Arctic nation partner, would enable the UK research community to develop new Arctic collaborations and to build on established ones.
Expand student and researcher exchange options for all Arctic nations through cross-national access and fully funded and continued engagement in programmes and networks such as North2North, UArctic, Erasmus, and Arctic-aligned Turing pathways.
Additional bilateral funding agreements with other Arctic nations to support international research collaborations, following the models with Norway and the US National Science Foundation.
There are extensive historic collaborations where UK science has benefited hugely from participation in international Arctic research cruises (particularly with researchers joining Norwegian and German ships i.e., ships of opportunity). These collaborations are solid evidence that other countries value the UK contribution to Arctic science and could be further supported by reciprocal offers of berths on UK research cruises.
Ensure there is a ship in Arctic waters every year with equal potential for acquisition of berths from UK and Arctic nations to enable future international collaborations. The RRS James Clark Ross conducted significant amounts of Arctic research during the NERC Changing Arctic Ocean programme, resulting in a huge amount of UK Arctic Research being carried out during this period.
The UK should commit to maintaining an aspect of long-term monitoring in the Arctic, something we have successfully supported in the past [32]. There are well-coordinated international observation programmes, and the UK would benefit from being an active partner in those with a long-term commitment.
The UK becoming a full partner in the Svalbard Integrated Observing System (SIOS)[33] would allow for better integration of long-term monitoring data and for more effective collaboration in this environmentally crucial and scientifically strategic part of the Arctic.

How do the findings of scientific research into the Arctic’s climate and environment inform the UK’s Arctic policy?

UK Arctic research has been used to create advisory policy documents on priorities for the Central Arctic Ocean [34]
Arctic salmon aquaculture is increasing activity within the Arctic areas of northern Norway, Faroes, and Canada and regulation and monitoring of the international industry is directly feeding into UK strategy development for sustainable salmon aquaculture [35],[36].

What are the implications for UK Arctic research of the UK Government’s new Arctic policy framework?

We welcome and encourage that the three principles behind the UK's original Arctic policy framework be upheld, namely "principles of respect, cooperation, and appropriate leadership".

How can future Arctic research in UK institutions be supported so as to maintain and enhance the UK’s leadership in Arctic science?

The UK’s role in Arctic science can be supported by:

Better trans-national access (both for UK researchers to join international research efforts, and for international colleagues to join UK research programmes).
More directed Arctic funding to support Arctic collaboration networks (e.g. Svalbard Integrated Arctic Earth Observing System)
More bilateral funding schemes, building on the success of previous schemes with Germany (NERC Changing Arctic Ocean programme), Canada (Canada-Inuit Nunangat-United Kingdom Arctic Research programme), and the new MOU with Norway.

What factors govern the commissioning of Arctic research programmes in UK scientific institutions, and to what extent are the outputs of such programmes used in contributions to multilateral scientific assessments such as the IPCC?

Joint UKRI-US funded International OSNAP programme (Overturning in the Sub-Polar North Atlantic Programme) and UKRI National Capability CLASS programme outputs cited in IPCC AR6 with reference to Arctic Ocean change. The UKs lead is exemplified by SAMS co-leading with NOC on UK-OSNAP and North Atlantic CLASS activities and outputs.

What research activities concerning the climate and environment ought to be eligible for UK support through the NERC?

Increased bilateral agreements between the UK and Arctic nations. Following the recent (2022) announcement of a “money follows cooperation agreement” between UKRI and Research Council Norway [37], we are now able to fund Norwegian collaborators on our UKRI projects. It would enable more productive international collaboration if we were able to do the same for other Arctic nations.

Has the UK’s departure from the EU had an impact on UK research in the Arctic? Has there been any impact on agreements on international cooperation, joint research projects and access to funding streams such as Horizon Europe?

There have been several post-Brexit difficulties in organising internships and visits for PhD students to SAMS and other UK institutions, events which occurred seamlessly before the UKs departure. Extensive processing times for visas have meant that visits have been delayed, adding further research pressures after the limited movement as a result of Covid-19. Much of the UKs success in Arctic research has been a result of international collaboration, particularly with European partners. A key example of this was the NERC Changing Arctic Ocean programme co-funded by UKRI and the German BMBF. The success of this programme was largely dependent on the easy exchange of postgraduate students and researchers across European nations, something that would be much more difficult now.

What impact has Russia’s invasion of Ukraine had on Arctic scientific cooperation? Has the conflict had an impact on UK research capacity in the Arctic?

In recent years (2018-2022), there had been a significant effort for UK researchers to engage with Russian collaborators, with much of this engagement focused on shared Arctic research interests. SAMS researchers were integral to bilateral visits arrange by the Science and Innovation Network (SIN), with colleagues visiting relevant institutes in both St Petersburg and Moscow in 2019/20, and SAMS hosted workshops for Russian visitors focusing on Arctic collaborations in 2020. Since the invasion of Ukraine, these efforts have come to a halt and the significant progress made has been pursued no further.
The NERC Changing Arctic Ocean programme had significant Russian engagement, with one project being based on Siberian river systems.
At recent international Arctic meetings, such as Arctic Science Summit Week (March 2023), it was noted that half the Arctic is no longer represented in scientific discussions. The Arctic Ocean is a continuous, boundary-free environment, and our ability to understand it as a system is significantly inhibited by restricted engagement with Russian collaborators and limited future sampling opportunities in Russian waters/from Russian ports.
Important collaborative expert-led reviewing of the status of Arctic contaminant assessment through the work of AMAP has been halted.
There is ongoing uncertainty about the guidelines surrounding publication of results involving Russian collaboration.
Prior to the Ukraine war SAMS was actively engaged in an advisory capacity to the Northern Sea Route International Expert Group (NSR IEG), now disbanded. The multi-national group provided guidance for best practice in ‘opening the Arctic’ in an ecologically sustainable way as a future year-round trade route.

The UK’s contribution to the Arctic through diplomacy and military support

What role does the UK have in international circles which support the stability of the Arctic environment: diplomacy, the law and insurance, the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, the International Maritime Organization?

UK scientific research in the Arctic encourages international cooperation and is a form of ‘soft diplomacy’. The UK is represented on an international scale through participation in the International Arctic Science Committee (10 UK scientists across five working groups)

How can the UK increase its visible presence and influence in the Arctic in support of activities which protect the Arctic environment?

More frequent scientific activity, both ship and land based, would increase the UKs presence and influence in the Arctic. This should build on the UKs successful international collaborations, by partnering with Arctic nations and other nations with Arctic research interests.
There have also been research successes through the initiation and upkeep of continued monitoring stations and time series. SAMS has been instrumental in two of these, by starting up an oceanographic observatory in two Svalbard fjords [38] and by contributing to continued efforts to measure Arctic light throughout the year [39]. We recommend further observatories of this type to understand the long-term changes in the Arctic and to establish the UKs visible presence in Arctic research.
Over the last decade considerable effort has gone into studying changes in the Arctic yet a large amount of work is still required to fully understand ecological baselines from which to monitor future change. The UK should lead on this need by applying emerging tools and technologies many of which have been pioneered within the UK research institutes i.e., molecular (eDNA), robotic (ROV/AUV), Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR), Artificial Intelligence (AI) etc.

April 2023

[35] Moriarty et al. In Review. A gap analysis of salmon lice infection pressure from fish farms: (I) a structured knowledge review.

[36] Murphy et al. In Review. A gap analysis of salmon lice infection pressure from fish farms: (II) Identifying and ranking knowledge gaps - output of an international workshop.

Written Submission by the Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS)

Prepared by:

Executive Summary

Overview of submitting organisation

Response to Enquiry